Vol. 19, No. 3, September 2003

Guest editorial: Wireless and Mobile Technology in Education

H.U. Hoppe1, R. Joiner2, M. Milrad3 & M. Sharples4

1 University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany,         2 University of Bath, UK.,
3 Växjö University, Sweden,     4 University of Birmingham, UK.

Correspondence: Richard Joiner, Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY Email: r.joiner@bath.ac.uk

The use of information technology in education and training has undergone several paradigm shifts over the last three decades. Very recently the notions of e-learning (learning supported by digital electronic tools and media) and m-learning (e-learning using mobile devices and wireless transmission) have emerged. These terms are often associated with a simplistic understanding of facilitating learning by delivering learning content. Content delivery using mobile devices has had some successes, for example the BBC’s ‘Bitesized revision’ materials delivered via SMS to mobile phones. The learning was facilitated by delivering content to students — however, it was structured to encourage students to discuss the content. Other content-led m-learning possibilities include ‘just-in-time’ training in specific skills (such as how to operate a machine). So content delivery to mobile devices may well have a useful place in m-learning, however, there is an imperative to move from a view of e- and m-learning as solely delivery mechanisms for content. In this view, the learner is just a special type of customer and the learning content is another type of e-commerce product. This simplistic view ignores the fact that modern education and pedagogy, irrespective of different background theories and schools of thought, converge in their high valuation of active, productive, creative and collaborative learning methods much beyond the ‘absorption’ of codified information.

Handheld devices are emerging as one of the most promising technologies for supporting learning and particularly collaborative learning scenarios. These technologies offer the possibility of moving away from the stand-alone computer, thus allowing interaction with several devices and making information accessible through a wireless connection to a server. These technologies offer new opportunities for individuals who require mobile computer solutions that other devices cannot provide. Thus, many researchers, as well as academic and industrial practitioners, are currently exploring the potential of mobile and wireless devices for supporting learning. The challenges are manifold: adapting and appropriating the technology for learning in a way consistent with learning goals and principles; the setting up and testing of prototypical applications and scenarios; the development of specific software tools and architectures; among others.

The underlying understanding of the nature of learning and learning processes has a decisive impact also on expectations of the design and the use of new mobile and wireless technologies in education. For the reductionist, delivery-oriented view of m-learning, the goal is to optimise the quality of service, e.g. in terms of availability across time and space or in terms of multimedia support. Of course, improvements on these scales can also be of interest for using the technology with a distinct orientation.

If these new technologies are used to support active and/or collaborative forms of learning, the expected gain or added value is typically defined quite differently: handheld computing devices allow for exploratory activities not bound to a special location, for example field trips, without losing the potential of taking electronic notes and retrieving information of various types. Such notes, ranging from data collections and digital images to handwritten annotations, can be easily exchanged and downloaded. If combined with wireless transmission, these activities can be continuously monitored and coordinated between places. But even in classrooms and training settings with more or less fixed locations, the use of mobile and wireless technologies may lead to substantial changes as small handheld or embedded devices are no longer dominating the interaction in the way that an explicit computer does. This can help us to move the technology to the background and to set the focus more on interpersonal relations and on the task at hand.

Such an understanding of the role of technology differs significantly from earlier suggestions to conceive computers as dialogue partners. We see this new orientation as a consequence of lessons learned from the limited success of past technology-centred approaches. A criticism of such earlier approaches to learning does indeed not exclude the use of the newest technology in the most creative and innovative ways. The point is that the learning environment, including such aspects as the roles of learners and teachers, types of activities and physical settings, should not be adapted to the available technology but vice versa. The technology should be designed for and adapted to the learning needs with the hope that better technology should adapt and serve better.

This Special Issue of JCAL grew out of the first IEEE workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (WMTE) that took place at Växjö University, Sweden in August 2002. This event was an effort to take up the challenges and to bring together an international community in the area. The best papers from this workshop were selected for publication in this Special Issue with the addition of a survey of the research area by Jeremy Roschelle. This survey reviews three examples of connected handheld computers in education: classroom response systems; participatory simulations and collaborative data gathering. He concludes that handheld educational applications have an overcomplicated view of technology and a simplistic view of the social practices surrounding these applications. Social practices that are critical to the success of the application. three examples of connected handheld computers in education: classroom response systems; participatory simulations and collaborative data gathering. He concludes that handheld educational applications take an overcomplicated view of technology and a simplistic view of the social practices surrounding these applications in particular the social practices that are critical to the success of the application. The papers in this Special Issue reinforce that conclusion

The remaining papers can be grouped roughly into three themes. The first set of papers deals with the nature of collaborative activity; how it supports or inhibits learning and the implications for the design of wireless mobile technology for learning. The second set reports studies of innovative uses of wireless and mobile technologies for learning. The final set of papers reports innovative developments in wireless and mobile technologies for learning.

In the first set of papers, Johan Lundin and Maria Magnusson discuss the move towards more communication-intense organisations and how to support work-based learning in a context where most workers are distributed and mobile. They report an observational study of a customer relations team. They distinguish four types of collaborative learning in this team: walking into collaborative learning; travelling to meetings; articulating practice and sharing without articulation. A second paper by Chris DiGiano and colleagues discusses the need, in designing wireless and mobile technology for learning, to better understand the patterns of classroom activity that support learning. They propose collaborative design patterns to describe common learning situations and use four classroom scenarios to describe eight patterns.

The second part of the Issue contains papers that report innovative uses of existing wireless and mobile technologies for learning. Sarah Davies draws on four years of observations of classes using two early prototypes of a classroom response system. She discusses how these prototype systems indicated to the students their level of understanding relative to their peers and how they had a dramatic impact on student engagement, increasing interaction between students and between the students and the teacher.

Sherry Hsi developed a mobile learning system for improving and transforming user experiences in a activity museum. She interviewed users of the electronic guidebook and several recurring themes emerged. The users reported that the handheld device contributed to a sense of isolation, both from less social interaction with others and from interference in playing with the exhibits. They also wanted to bridge real-place and virtual contexts by engaging the handheld as an integral part of the exhibit.

Ole Smørdal & Judith Gregory report on a project exploring how wireless and mobile technologies may be useful in medical education and clinical practice, particular in accessing web-based information when required. The students were given PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) which provided access to medical information both online and offline. The authors report that the students did not use the PDA for information gathering, but they did use it for communication, especially for social purposes. The authors conclude that the design and development of mobile and wireless technologies requires a socio-historical conceptualisation of the information and communication infrastructure in relation to the social and technical networks.

Pauliina Seppälä & Harri Alamäki report their experience of using wireless and mobile technology for teacher training. They carried out a pilot study with some trainee teachers who were lent some mobile communicators and some digital cameras. The idea was that the teachers and students could discuss their teaching through the mobile devices and use digital cameras as a means of supporting that discussion. They could also upload material using the mobile device and construct their own digital portfolio. The authors report that the students liked the convenience, immediacy and expediency of the mobile technology. The supervising teachers were all very positive about using the mobile technology and particularly liked the flexibility it brought to their work. The authors conclude that mobile technology enables students’ experience and the joy of learning.

The final set of papers reports innovative developments in wireless and mobile technologies for learning. The first paper, by Chih-Yuh Chang and colleagues, introduces four classes of mobile learning. They discuss the design, implementation and test trial of a mobile outdoor group learning model. The model outlines the tools provided for both the teacher and the student. Yuh-Shyan Chen and colleagues developed a mobile learning system that scaffolded students’ learning about bird watching. The bird watching system provided an outdoor mobile learning system which was one of four classes of mobile learning discussed by Chang and colleagues. Chen and colleagues conducted a formative evaluation comparing the bird watching system with a guide book. The results were very encouraging and they found that the students using the bird watching system gained more than those students who had only used the guide book.

Harri Ketamo developed xTask, an adaptive learning environment, and evaluated its usability. The system could be accessed by PCs or mobile devices. He studied workgroups, who were all given a mobile device for use during the course. The groups were asked to accomplish a number of tasks. After the course the students were interviewed about the usefulness of xTask. Ketamo reports that the students found the mobile devices useful when used for structuring documents and for providing comments on other students’ writing. The students all felt that the mobile devices they were equipped with were not ready to be the only platform for studying.

The final two papers discuss the use of new wireless mobile technology in the classroom context. Tzu-Chien Liu and colleagues built a Wireless technology Enhanced Classroom that supported everyday activities unobtrusively and seamlessly in a classroom context. They integrated a wireless LAN, wireless mobile learning devices, an electronic whiteboard, an interactive classroom server, a resource and class management server. Niels Pinkwart and colleagues report three applications and collaboration scenarios for extending co-constructive modelling and discussion environments with wireless mobile devices.

This combination of innovation and practical use coupled with evaluation is certainly the right blend for our new field. It is essential to remember that the introduction of new technological tools takes place in an existing social environment having their patterns of interaction, their own culture. Hence, these new tools should be interpreted and used accordingly, but they can also have a major impact in transforming those cultures and practices. The mediation of mobile and wireless technologies and applications challenges traditional distinctions made between ‘new learning environments’. They can take place anywhere/anytime and challenge the notion of learning only in the classroom. It has the potential to generate new learning and teaching activities and opportunities. With this Special Issue we hope to contribute to forming a productive and innovative, open and international community which does not only bring forth advancements in science and technology but also contributes to improving practice for better learning.

Editor’s note:

In view of the many new devices, terms and acronyms used in the papers of this Special Issue, it is hoped that the Glossary , which is an ‘appendix’ to this Guest Editorial, and the technical review of mobile computational devices (pp. 392-395) will help readers in accessing the innovative potential offered by the leading edge technologies outlined in these papers.

I would like to thank the Guest Editors, Jeremy Roschelle, Tak-Wai Chan and Kinshuk for their various roles in bringing this Special Issue of JCAL to fruition in a very short time.

Bob Lewis

Glossary of terms and acronyms

This glossary was complied by Mike Sharples, Educational Technology Research Group,
University of Birmingham, UK

802.11b     The most widely used standard from WLAN, providing a data rate of up to 11 Megabits/ s. Uses a transmission frequency that does not require a radio operators licence, but is the same frequency as used by microwave ovens and other consumer devices, which could interfere with the signal and lower the data rate.

802.11a     A new standard for WLAN communication, providing a data rate of up to 54 megabits/ s. Uses a higher frequency for the transmission than 802.11a, which means that, for a given power, the range is shorter.

802.11g     A new standard for WLAN communication with data rates up to 54 megabits/ s. Uses the same transmission frequency as 802.11b.

Bluetooth  A data communication system increasingly provided in PDAs and mobile phones, giving reasonably high speed communication (up to 720 kilobits/ s) over short distances (up to 10 m). Uses the same transmission frequency as WLAN, so Bluetooth and WLAN used in the same location could cause interference and lower data rates. Bluetooth offers features such as automatic discovery of other Bluetooth-enabled devices.

Clamshell  The standard design of laptop computer with a screen that folds over a keyboard base.

GPS         A system using satellites to provide positioning information, now with an accuracy of 5–10 m. Can be used to provide Location Based Services (LBS), such as showing where the user is located on a map, providing directions, or to sending information relevant to the location (such as a tourist guide). An extension of GPS, called Differential GPS (DGPS), can give an accuracy of about 2 m.

GPRS       A method of sending data to and from mobile phones, by producing ‘packets’ of data that are transmitted via the GSM system. The differences from GSM are that data can be sent about 10 times faster, and that the user only pays for each packet sent or received rather than for the time spent connected.

GSM        (Global System for Mobile Communications) The digital voice telephony system used for mobile phones in more than 100 countries and the de facto standard in Europe and Asia. Designed for voice communications, it can also be used for slow speed (9.6 kilobits/ s) data connections.

Handheld (see PDA)

IrDA         A standard defined by the Infrared Data Association to transfer data between computers without cables, via infrared light. The data rate can be up to 16 megabits/s but the devices must be within clear line of sight and less than about 2 m apart. Can also be used to remote control devices.

LAN         (Local area network) An interconnection of computers within a restricted area such as a campus or school, usually with high speed connections of 10 or 100 megabits/ s. Usually requires cables between each computer, though wireless LANs are becoming more common.

PDA         (Personal Digital Assistant - sometimes called Handheld). A handheld computer, originally focused on supporting mobile office needs such as finding contacts or managing a diary, now with a broader range of personal tools. Some provide communication through GPRS or WLAN. Its data can be synchronised with a desktop computer or network.

SMS         (Short Message Service) The system used for sending text messages between mobile phones. The message length is limited to 160 characters.

MMS        Multimedia Messaging Service. An extension of SMS for sending multimedia messages, such as pictures and graphics.

Tablet PC It has the power and functionality of a conventional laptop computer, coupled with a fold-flat or detachable touch-sensitive screen. Has the ability to record handwritten notes and diagrams.

UMTS      (Universal Mobile Telephone Service) A third generation (3G) system for mobile communication at speeds up to 2 Megabits/ s, enabling video phones and streaming of video to handheld devices.

WAP        (Wireless Application Protocol) A method for delivering worldwide web information to mobile phones. It uses a version of the HTML web description language, WML, designed to describe pages of content for delivery over slow speed connections and display on devices with small screens and one-hand navigation without a keyboard. The need for WAP is now reduced, with new handheld devices able to display normal HTML web pages.

WLAN      Wireless LAN. A system for high speed wireless communication over medium distances (currently up to about 100 m outdoors and around 10–20 m indoors). Becoming used in schools and workplaces to extend or replace a LAN, giving users with portable computers access to the Web.

Keynote paper: Unlocking the learning value of wireless mobile devices

J. Roschelle, S.R.I. International, Menlo Park, California

Email: Jeremy.Roschelle@sri.com

Many researchers see the potential of wireless mobile learning devices to achieve large-scale impact on learning because of portability, low cost, and communications features. This enthusiasm is shared but the lessons drawn from three well-documented uses of connected handheld devices in education lead towards challenges ahead. First, ‘wireless, mobile learning’ is an imprecise description of what it takes to connect learners and their devices together in a productive manner. Research needs to arrive at a more precise understanding of the attributes of wireless networking that meet acclaimed pedagogical requirements and desires. Second, ‘pedagogical applications’ are often led down the wrong road by complex views of technology and simplistic views of social practices. Further research is needed that tells the story of rich pedagogical practice arising out of simple wireless and mobile technologies. Third, ‘large scale’ impact depends on the extent to which a common platform, that meets the requirements of pedagogically rich applications, becomes available. At the moment ‘wireless mobile technologies for education’ are incredibly diverse and incompatible; to achieve scale, a strong vision will be needed to lead to standardisation, overcoming the tendency to marketplace fragmentation.

Keywords: Collaboration; Internet; IT-use; Network; Portable; School; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 259-271

Accepted 19 May 2003

Collaborative learning in mobile work

J. Lundin & M. Magnussonm Viktoria Institute & Volvo Information Technology AB, Göteborg

Email: johan.lundin@viktoria.se

Moving towards more communication intensive organisations, where work tends to be mobile, understanding how to support learning in such work becomes increasingly important. This paper reports on a study of a customer relations team, where work is performed co-located, distributed as well as mobile. Collaborative learning within in this team is explored so as to inform the design of IT support. In the results four instances of collaborative learning important in the studied team were identified: walking into collaborative learning, travelling to meetings, articulating practice and sharing without articulating. These issues are discussed and how they affect the design of collaborative learning activities for mobile knowledge workers.

Keywords: Collaboration; Design; Ethnographic; Mobility; Peer; Professional; Team

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 272-282

Accepted 3 May 2003

Conceptual tools for planning for the wireless classroom

C. DiGiano, L. Yarnall, C. Patton, J. Roschelle, D. Tatar & M. Manley

Center for Technology in Learning, SRI International and Manley Design, Menlo Park,

Email: chris.digiano@sri.com

Wireless and mobile devices are beginning to offer stunning new technical capabilities for collaborative learning. Yet, researchers in this field must recognise the importance of complementing these technical advances with improved understanding of the patterns of classroom activity that most need support. The approach taken in the work reported in this paper has been to create conceptual tools that help thinking and talking about technology-supported collaborative learning. A particularly powerful tool is Collaborative Design Patterns, which captures common learning situations and benefits in written form. This paper uses four classroom scenarios to describe eight patterns. These patterns fall into two categories: whole-activity patterns, which suggest ways to organise one or more class periods, and smaller-grained support patterns.

Keywords: Case study; Collaboration; Groupware; Handheld; IT-use; Mobile; Process; Qualitative; School; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 284-297

Accepted 3 April 2003

Observations in classrooms using a network of handheld devices

S. Davis, Texas Instruments and The University of Texas

Email: sdavis@ti.com

This paper illustrates the educational implications of the design features of public anonymity and private accountability in a classroom network of handheld devices. The author draws from four years of observations of classes using two early network prototypes. Themes discussed are anonymity of data submission to the group, the ability for students to see their data displayed in the group space, the ability for the teacher to instantly assess how all students are doing at any time during a lesson, and that the ability of the network to let all students answer all questions may have an impact upon student engagement in the classroom. The paper goes on to highlight research done in the field of communications using synchronous electronic submission systems and relates this to the use of similar networks in the classroom.

Keywords: Communication; Group; Handheld; Interview; Intranet; Secondary; Synchronous

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 298-307

Accepted 15 April 2003

A study of user experiences mediated by nomadic web content in a museum

S. Hsi, The Exploratorium, San Francisco

Email: sherryh@exploratorium.edu

How should nomadic web content be designed to improve and transform user experiences in a hands-on museum? In this study, 15 users were studied while using an electronic guidebook designed to augment user experiences via wireless technologies at the Exploratorium, an interactive science museum. Several recurring themes emerged from the analysis, such as users’ sense of isolation and users’ attempts to make a seamless transition between real-place and virtual contexts. This paper shares a preliminary framework for organising user interactions with handheld devices, user experiences based on interviews and insights regarding the role of nomadic web content.

Keywords: Experiential; Handheld; Informal; Interview; Museum; Navigation; Science; Teachers; Wireless; World-wide Web

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 308-319

Accepted 14 May 2003

Personal Digital Assistants in medical education and practice

O. Smørdal & J. Gregory, InterMedia and Department of Informatics, University of Oslo

Email: ole.smordal@intermedia.uio.no

This paper reports on a current project, KNOWMOBILE, that explores how wireless and mobile technologies, in this case how Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) may be useful in medical education and clinical practice, particularly to access net-based information. KNOWMOBILE is a research collaboration involving academic and industrial partners which aims to support Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and the integration of Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) in medical education reform in Norway. What does ‘just-in-time’ access to information mean in clinical settings? How can health professionals be helped with access to the most up-to-date medical information? From a preliminary analysis of the problems of Personal Digital Assistants in use — and nonuse — problems regarding information and communication infrastructure discussed that require work from a social historical interpretation of ‘infrastructures’ in order to enhance design perspectives and directions for future research. It is concluded that the PDAs should not be regarded as Personal Digital Assistants, but rather as gateways in complicated webs of interdependent technical and social networks.

Keywords: Empirical; Evidence-based; Handheld; Infrastructure; Medical education; Mobile; World-wide web

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 320-329

Accepted 3 April 2003

Mobile learning in teacher training

P. Seppälä & H. Alamäki, University of Helsinki & Oy Radiolinja Ab

Email: Pauliina.O.Seppala@helsinki.fi

This paper describes a mobile learning project, where mobile devices are used for educational activities. The main focus of this paper is teacher training. Experiences on the use of mobile technology and how it was used in teacher training, especially how trainees and supervising teachers felt about it, are presented. The pilot study was carried out at the Department of Home Economics and Craft Science in University of Helsinki. The idea of the pilot was that the supervising teacher and trainee students could discus and share their ideas about teaching methods through the mobile device and use of a short message service (SMS) and digital pictures as a part of the supervising process. The use of digital pictures which were delivered via the mobile device proved to be surprisingly successful. The goal of these innovative pilot projects is to create flexible teaching solutions, which will enable access to information using different devices, and support learning in a variety of situations.

Keywords: Case Study; Change; Distributed; Handheld; Interview; IT-use; Mobile; Teachers; Training; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 330-335

Accepted 3 April 2002

Concept and design of Ad Hoc and Mobile classrooms

C.Y. Chang, J.P. Sheu & T.W. Chan,
Tamkang University and National Central University, Taiwan

Email:cychang@cs.tku.edu.tw

This investigation describes the concept of mobile learning and the design of Ad Hoc and Mobile classrooms. Four classes of mobile learning and implementation of Ad Hoc and eSchoolbag systems are presented. The paper discusses the development of advanced wireless technologies for building an ad hoc classroom to create a modern and new learning environment. As in a traditional classroom, information technology is developed to provide the teacher with aids, such as a blackboard, a board rubber, coloured chalk, a microphone, a voice recorder, a video recorder, and so on, to support teaching and discussions. Additionally, students are provided with an electronic schoolbag which contains electronic books, a notebook, a parents’ contact book, a pencil case, writing materials, sheets, a calculator, an address book, and other items. Taking lessons in a lively, vivid and new learning environment, it is expected that students will improve their learning performance with perhaps less attendance in a physical classroom and they gain the flexibility of being able to learn at their own convenience.

Keywords: Ad Hoc classroom; eSchoolbag; Handheld; Mobile classroom; School; Student-centred; Wireless.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 336-346

Accepted 10 April 2003

A mobile learning system for scaffolding bird watching learning

Y.S. Chen, T.C. Kao & J.P. Sheu,
National Chung Cheng, National Dong Hwa & National Central Universities, Taiwan

Email: yschen@cs.ccu.edu.tw

This paper develops a mobile learning system for scaffolding students learning about bird-watching. The aim is to construct an outdoor mobile-learning activity using up-to-date wireless technology. The proposed Bird-Watching Learning (BWL) system is designed using a wireless mobile ad-hoc network. In the BWL system, each learner has a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) with a Wi-Fi-based (IEEE 802.11b) wireless network card. The BWL system offers a mobile learning system which supports the students learning through scaffolding. The aim of a formative evaluation was twofold: to explore the possible roles and scaffolding aids that the mobile learning device offers for bird-watching activities and to investigate whether student learning benefited from the mobility, portability, and individualisation of the mobile learning device.

Keywords: Bird-watching; Formative; Intranet; Mobile; Quantitative; Scaffolding; School; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 347-359

Accepted 15 April 2003

xTask – an adaptable learning environment

H. Ketamo, Tampere University of Technology, Finland

Email: harri.ketamo@tut.fi

The general aim of this study was to develop a platform-adaptive learning environment (xTask) and to evaluate its use. The software environment can be accessed by PC’s or mobile devices, such as PDA’s or Communicator. The empirical part of the study was carried out during May 2002 with 10 students between 21 and 50 years of age participating in a course on mobile device usability. In the study the xTask interface proved functional. The working processes show clearly that there were phases when the work was efficient with mobile devices, but students also felt that mobile devices were not ready to be the only platform for learning. They preferred PC’s with wired networks, but admitted that PDA’s could be used to support aspects of the learning processes. Generally, mobile technologies can bring some added value for network based learning, but they cannot replace traditional computers.

Keywords: Action research; Collaboration; Handheld; Internet; IT-use; Mobile; Process; Undergraduate; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 360-370

Accepted 1 April 2003

Wireless and mobile technologies to enhance teaching and learning

T.C. Liu, H.Y. Wang, J.K. Liang, T.W. Chan, H.W. Ko & J.C. Yang

National Central University, Taiwan.

Email: ltc@cc.ncu.edu.tw

This research aims to build a Wireless Technology Enhanced Classroom (WiTEC) that supports everyday activities unobtrusively and seamlessly in classroom contexts. This paper describes the integration of wireless LAN, wireless mobile learning devices, an electronic whiteboard, an interactive classroom server, and a resource and class management server to build the WiTEC. This contains a number of features that can support class members in various types of teaching and learning activities. Project-based learning is taken as a scenario to elaborate how teachers and students can engage in teaching and learning via WiTEC. Finally, a number of suggestions are discussed for further study.

Keywords: Wireless; Mobile; Ubiquitous computing; Project-based learning; Interactive; Primary, IT-use

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 371-382

Accepted 15 April 2003

Educational scenarios for cooperative use of Personal Digital Assistants

N. Pinkwart, H.U. Hoppe, M. Milrad & J. Perez
University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany & Växjö University, Sweden

Email: pinkwart@collide.info

Based on experience in orchestrating collaborative learning scenarios with ubiquitous computing technology, three approaches for extending co-constructive modelling and discussion environments with Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) connected through a wireless network are described. One application is an annotation tool, the second one replicates a modelling system on the PDA and the third one makes use of a wireless optical reader in addition to the PDA. They all provide ‘lightweight’ synchronisation mechanisms in PC-based environments. General design and implementation strategies for such extensions are discussed in terms of model, view and controller.

Keywords: Case study; Collaboration; Distributed; Handheld; Mobile; Primary; Synchronous; Wireless

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 383-391

Accepted 1 April 2003

A technical review of mobile computational devices

M. Sharples & R. Beale, Educational Technology Research Group, University of Birmingham

Email: m.sharples@bham.ac.uk

Mobile technology is changing so fast, with new products being introduced daily, that any review of specific devices will rapidly be so out of date as to be unhelpful. Thus, this review focuses on general classes of device, with examples of manufacturers and machines for illustration only.

There is a major convergence of technology in progress, which some view as leading towards single devices with multiple functions such as mobile phone, multimedia computer and digital camera. Others predict a host of mobile activities (e.g. digital imaging, video, location sensing) and many different devices offering subsets of these. Whatever the outcome, the trend is towards a greater variety of technologies. New mobile phones are capable of video calls, multimedia and video messaging, and loading and running programs such as interactive games or teaching packages. Some handheld computers have built-in high speed wireless connection to the Internet either through Wireless LAN or GPRS phone link, or both. New pen tablet computers come with full Windows operating systems and wireless LAN connection and so can function like laptop computers as well as notetaking devices. Over the coming decade the convergence will continue, to embrace mobile Internet gaming, remote monitoring (e.g. of household appliances or laboratory experiments), and mobile interactive television.

Currently, mobile computational devices can be divided into six general categories, in rough order of computational power: wrist-worn devices, mobile phones, handheld computers and PDAs, web pads, pen tablet computers and laptops.

Wrist-worn devices

As well as telling time and date, some wristwatches can now measure temperature, barometric pressure, altitude, and heartrate, or act as GPS location devices or MP3 music players. Intended for specific interests or activities, they are not designed as cut-down computers and generally have no or limited connectivity with other mobile devices.

Mobile phones

Most mobile phones now use digital telephony and are capable of sending and receiving data, though at slow speeds (9.6 kilobits/sec). Some older multimedia phones such as the Nokia 9210 use standard GSM connection, which means that while reading email can be acceptable, browsing the web is painfully slow. The newer GPRS system offers higher data rates and ‘always on’ connection, making it possible to browse the Internet, send multimedia messages and receive and send email. An example of a GPRS multimedia phone is the Sony Ericsson P800. It has a large 208 ´ 320 touch sensitive screen like a handheld computer, with a number-pad that folds over part of the screen so it can be operated like a normal mobile phone. It offers personal organiser functions, plus a camera, audio and video player. Its Symbian operating system, however, is different to that found on handhelds so that it cannot run standard PocketPC or Palm programs. The ‘third generation’ or 3G phones, such as the Siemens U10, allow even faster speeds of connection, for receiving video or making videophone calls.

Handheld computers

Until recently handheld computers (also known as palmtop computers) offered a limited range of tools and were designed either as personal organisers (such as the Palm) or note takers (such as the Psion). New handhelds offer almost as wide a range of applications as a desktop PC, including MP3 music players, web browsers, and paint packages. Almost all use a stylus to input data, although both older machines such as the Psion and newer ones such as the Tungsten W have built-in keyboards. The handhelds can be classed according to their operating systems: PalmOS, PocketPC, Epoc and Linux.

A typical low end PalmOS machine is the Palm Zire. This has a relatively old Motorola Dragonball EZ 16 Mhz processor and only 2Mb of built-in memory. It is light (109 g) and small (112 mm ´ 74 mm ´ 16 mm), but has a 320 ´ 320 monochrome display, no expansion slot to add extra memory or accessories, and no audio capabilities. All PalmOS devices can connect to a desktop computer and synchronise data with calendar and address book programs. The Palm range was designed from the outset to be thin enough to put in a pocket and easy to operate for basic personal organiser tools. Note taking is done using the stylus on a part of the screen that recognises stylised ‘graffiti’ characters. About 30 min of training is needed to learn how to input text and from then on the recognition is reasonably fast and accurate.

The higher-end palm OS machines such as the Sony Clié PEG NX70V have a keyboard, a colour 320 ´ 480 pixel screen, a digital still and integral movie camera, with a slot to add Sony’s own 802. 11b wireless LAN and also a memory stick with up to 128Mb memory. The NX70V has a 200-MHz Intel processor, 65,536 colour TFT screen and 16Mb of built-in memory. 

PocketPC handheld computers, such as the HP iPAQ are designed as Windows computers in the hand. The interface is similar to Windows, with a Start button for accessing software applications and screens and a file browser like that on a Windows desktop PC. The front ‘Today’ screen gives an overview of activities such as appointments, unread emails, and pending ‘to do’ items. Synchronising files and Outlook tools with desktop computers is easy using the built-in ActiveSync software. One key difference from PalmOS computers is that more than one application can be running at once. It is easy to click between applications, but having too many open causes the system to run very slowly as it tries to manage its limited memory.

A typical basic machine is the HP iPAQ 1910, with an Intel 200 MHz chip and 64Mb of built in memory (46 Mb accessible to the user), plus an SD slot to add further memory. It is relatively small (1220 mm ´ 78 mm ´ 13 mm) and light (120 gm) with most of the area taken up with a bright colour 240 ´ 320 pixel screen. Unlike low-end Palm machines it has a microphone, speaker, and an earpiece jack. The battery life is somewhat low (HP claims four hours) but with the option of swapping batteries. At the other extreme, the H5450 comes with Bluetooth to communicate with other devices such as mobile phones, 802.11b to connect to a wireless LAN, and built-in fingerprint recognition to stop unauthorised access. It has 64Mb of memory and a 240 ´ 320 screen, as well as a fast 400 MHz processor. Others making PocketPC computers include Toshiba, Acer, NEC, and Mitac. Siemens and xda manufacture PocketPC computers with a built-in GSM phone.

Only a few companies, including Sharp and Yopy, offer Linux handheld computers. The Yopy YP3500 is almost a miniature laptop computer, with a ‘clamshell design’, keyboard and the Linux operating system. The Epoc operating system is now only found on the discontinued Psion computers.

Web pads

The term ‘web pad’ was coined by National Semiconductor in 1998 to describe a wireless tablet computer that is specifically designed to access the Internet. The idea was that home or school users would not want a fully specified laptop or tablet computer, but rather a machine that provided the two basic functions of web browsing and reading email. A small number of companies such as Amstrad, Fujitsu and Hitachi manufactured webpads, but high level of interest during 2000–2001 evaporated with the arrival of more fully specified pen tablet computers.

Pen tablet computers

The pen tablet computer has a long and honourable history, dating back to the far-sighted Xerox Dynabook project of the early 1970s. Kay and Goldberg wrote:

Imagine having your own self contained knowledge manipulator in a portable package the size and the shape of an ordinary notebook. Suppose it had enough power to out race your senses of sight and hearing, enough capacity to store for later retrieval thousands of page equivalents of reference materials, poems, letter, recipes, records, drawings, animations, musical scores, waveforms, dynamic simulations and anything else you would like to remember and change (Kay & Goldberg, 1977).

That dream has now been realised. In the late 1990s companies including Fujitsu began to produce machines with the functionality of a laptop computer, including the full Windows operating system, but in a package the size and shape of a thick A5 or A4 notepad. They had touch sensitive colour screens operated by a stylus and some provided docking stations and infrared keyboards so that they could also be used as desktop replacement computers. Tablets found a niche in markets such as medical record keeping and technical fault-finding, as well as in education as an ‘electronic schoolbook’ and Microsoft produced the Windows CE operating system as a cut-down version of Windows for tablets and other portable machines.

In 2002 Microsoft produced a new operating system for Tablet PCs, the Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, along with a set of hardware specifications for manufacturers designing hardware for that system. The requirements include (in simplified form) that the tablet must:

•           use an active digitizer rather than a resistive (touch) digitizer;

•           be legacy-free (no serial, parallel or PS/2 ports);

•           be able to rotate the display between landscape and portrait without rebooting;

•           resume from suspend in less than 2 seconds;

•           last in suspend mode for more than 72 hours, starting with a full battery

•           automatically hibernate (save to disk) upon battery exhaustion in suspend mode;

•           allow surprise removal from a dock; upon reinsertion, everything must work.

The operating system offers a number of features specifically for tablet computers such as handwriting recognition (with accuracy varying from very good to barely acceptable dependent on your style of handwriting), note taking facilities, text searching of handwritten notes, document annotation, and speech recognition.

A number of manufacturers produce tablet computers that conform to this specification including Compaq, Toshiba, Fujitsu, Acer and Research Machines. Although they all have the same operating system and thus can run the same software applications, the specification and appearance of the different manufacturers’ machines differs widely. Two contrasting examples are the Toshiba Portégé 3500 and the Compaq TC1000.

The Toshiba machine looks like a conventional ‘clamshell’ laptop computer, but the screen can rotate and fold back flat on the keyboard to make a (somewhat bulky) tablet computer. It has a fast 1.33 GHz Intel PIII mobile processor, a standard 256 Mb memory and a 20Gb hard drive. The 12.1 inch screen has a 1024 ´ 768 resolution high colour display. The active pen has a ‘hovering’ capability, so that the cursor follows the pen even when it is not touching the pad. The machine has most of the connectivity of a standard laptop including 802.11b wireless connection. The manufacturer’s claimed battery life is 3.5 hours although a typical duration would be 2.5–3 hours.

The Compaq computer is a tablet device that can be slotted into a keyboard, giving it the ability to change from a tablet to notebook PC. It uses the FinePoint Digitizer stylus, which does not have pressure sensitivity and needs an AAAA battery, but performs well near the screen edges. The Compaq machine has a 1gHz Transmeta TM5800 Crusoe chip, which is slower than the Toshiba’s, particularly when the unit is first turned on or an application is being launched for the first time. The advantage is a longer battery life, which is 3.5–4 hours when power management is set to automatic, but around 5 hours if power management is set to Maximum Battery. It has a smaller 10.4 inch screen with 1024 ´ 768 resolution and comes with built-in wireless LAN, a 30Gb hard drive and standard PC-type connections.

Research Machines manufactures a tablet aimed at the education market. It is light (1.4 Kg) and relatively inexpensive, but with no keyboard. It comes in a student edition and a teacher edition (with a faster processor and additional connectivity). Both versions have integrated 802.11b wireless LAN.

Laptop computers

Laptop computers are now so ubiquitous as to need no detailed survey. They range from small light machines (though these are being overtaken by pen tablet computers) to desktop replacements with 17 inch screens.

Reference

Kay, A. & Goldberg, A. (1977) Personal dynamic media. IEEE Computer, 10, 3, 31–41.

Sources:

Include: manufacturers’ specifications and
http://www.tabletpctalk.com/faqs/hwcomparison.shtml,
http://www.pencomputing.com/frames/textblock_webpads.html
PDA Essentials, Issue 13, 2003

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 3, 392-395